
class Word:
    def __init__(self, word):
        self.word = word
    def __add__(self, rhs):
        return Word(self.word + ' ' + str(rhs))
    def __str__(self):
        return self.word

hello = Word('Hello')
world = Word('World')
print(hello + world)

Hello World

sudo apt-get install python3-notebook python3-ipykernel

source /usr/share/virtualenvwrapper/virtualenvwrapper.sh


import this

The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters

Beautiful is better than ugly.
Explicit is better than implicit.
Simple is better than complex.
Complex is better than complicated.
Flat is better than nested.
Sparse is better than dense.
Readability counts.
Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
Although practicality beats purity.
Errors should never pass silently.
Unless explicitly silenced.
In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
Now is better than never.
Although never is often better than *right* now.
If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!


# Comments start with '#'.


# Import modules.
import os

import matplotlib.pyplot
import numpy as np


# Import only specific functions from a module.
from scipy import interpolate, stats


# Remember: never ever do 'from foo import *'


# Declare a variable.
a = 5.
a = "Hello World!"


# Addition and subtraction
print("5.  + 5. =", 5. + 5.)
print("10. - 5. =", 10. - 5.)

5.  + 5. = 10.0
10. - 5. = 5.0


# Multiplication, division, and floor division
print("5.  * 5. =", 5. * 5.)
print("25. / 5. =", 25. / 5.)
print("5.3 // 2 =", 5.3 // 2)

5.  * 5. = 25.0
25. / 5. = 5.0
5.3 // 2 = 2.0


# Modulo and exponentiation
print("25. % 4. =", 25. % 4.)
print("5.**2    =", 5.**2)

25. % 4. = 1.0
5.**2    = 25.0


# Do calculations with variables.
a = 5.
print("a + 5. =", a + 5.)

a + 5. = 10.0


b = 4.
c = a + b
print("c = a + b =", c)

c = a + b = 9.0


# In-place modifications
a += 5.
print("a =", a)

a = 10.0


# Call mathematical functions like sin, exp, log, ...
# Instead of NumPy, you can also use the 'math' module.
print("exp(2.5)   =", np.exp(2.5))
print("sin(pi/2.) =", np.sin(np.pi/2.))

exp(2.5)   = 12.182493960703473
sin(pi/2.) = 1.0


# Some examples
print("{:>+10.2f}".format(np.pi))
print("{:010d}".format(3))

     +3.14
0000000003


# Some more examples
s = "{0}, {1[0]}, {1[1]}, {2[a]}"
print(s.format(0, [1, 2], {"a": 3}))
print("{key}".format(key=4))

0, 1, 2, 3
4


# f-string examples
a = 10.5
print(f"a = {a}")
print(f"a = {a:.0f}")
print(f"Evaluate some code: {5*5:.2f}")
print(f"Evaluate some more code: {np.sqrt(9):.0f}")

a = 10.5
a = 10
Evaluate some code: 25.00
Evaluate some more code: 3


# Example for-loop with conditions
for i in range(3):
    if i == 0:
        print("Skip 0.")
    elif i % 2 > 0:
        print("{} is an odd  number.".format(i))
    else:
        print("{} is an even number.".format(i))

Skip 0.
1 is an odd  number.
2 is an even number.


# Example while-loop
d = {"a": 0, "b": 1}

while len(d) > 0:
    d.popitem()


for i in [1, 2, 3]:
    if i == 0:
        break
else:
    print('No 0 found!')

No 0 found!


for i in [0, 1, 2, 3]:
    if i == 0:
        break
else:
    print('No 0 found!')


# List comprehension examples
l = [i**2 for i in range(10)]
l = [10. / i for i in range(10) if i > 0]
l = [10. / i if i > 0 else np.inf for n in range(10)]
l = [[a*i for a in [1, 2]] for i in range(1, 11)]


# The same works for dictionaries.
d = {"a": 2., "b": 3.}
d = {k: v**2 for k, v in d.items()}


# And of course sets
s = {i**2 for i in range(10)}


# Some generator magic
g = (i**2 for i in range(10))
r = sum(g)

# We can also do this in one line.
print(sum(i**2 for i in range(10)))

285


# Create a text file and give it some input.
with open("example.txt", "w") as stream:
    stream.write("This is a line.\n")
    stream.write("This is another line.")


# Read the content of the text file.
with open("example.txt", "r") as stream:
    lines = stream.readlines()

print("".join(lines))

This is a line.
This is another line.


import random

# Initialize the random number generator with a seed.
# Use None as seed for using the current time.
random.seed(42)

# Return the next floating point number between [0 and 1).
print(random.random())

# Return a uniformly distributed floating point number in the range [a, b].
a = 1
b = 6
print(random.uniform(a, b))

# See numpy how to generate a sequence of random numbers.

0.6394267984578837
1.1250537761133348


# A simple function that takes two arguments.
def power(a, e=2.):
    r"""Exponentiation

    Calculate: ``a**e``.

    Parameters
    ----------
    a : float
        Some number
    e : float, optional
        Exponent

    Returns
    -------
    float
        Result of ``a**e``

    """
    return a**e


print("5.**2 =", power(5.))

5.**2 = 25.0


# Alternative ways to call the function
results = [
    power(5., 2.),
    power(5., e=2.),
    power(a=5., e=2.),
    power(e=2., a=5.),
    power(*[5., 2.]),
    power(**{"a": 5., "e": 2.})
]


print("Results:", ", ".join("{}".format(r) for r in results))

Results: 25.0, 25.0, 25.0, 25.0, 25.0, 25.0


# General syntax
def func(*args, **kwargs):
    print(f'args: {args}')
    print(f'kwargs: {kwargs}')


func(3 ,'a', a=2, b='1')

args: (3, 'a')
kwargs: {'a': 2, 'b': '1'}


# Example for lambda usage
print(sorted("String"))
print(sorted("String", key=lambda s: s.lower()))

['S', 'g', 'i', 'n', 'r', 't']
['g', 'i', 'n', 'r', 'S', 't']


# A lambda function can be assigned to a variable.
square = lambda x: x**2
print("5**2 =", square(5.))

5**2 = 25.0


# Write a function that can raise an exception.
def division(a, b):
    r"""Divide `a` by `b`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    a,b : float
        Nominator and denominator

    Returns
    -------
    float
        The result of ``a/b``

    Raises
    ------
    ValueError
        If the denominator `b` is zero.
    """
    if np.fabs(b) > 0.:
        return a / b
    else:
        raise ValueError("The denominator should not be zero.")


# Catch the exception.
try:
    r = division(5., 0.)
except ValueError as e:
    print(e)
    r = np.inf
finally:
    print("The result is {}.".format(r))

The denominator should not be zero.
The result is inf.


# Example of a simple decorating function.
def paragraph(f):
    return lambda name: "<p>{}</p>".format(f(name))


@paragraph
def greet(name):
    return "Hello {}, how are you?".format(name)


print(greet("John"))

<p>Hello John, how are you?</p>


def preparing_to_feed_cat(what_to_feed):

    def feed_cat(how_much_to_feed):
        msg = f"I'm feeding my cat with {how_much_to_feed} {what_to_feed}."
        return msg

    return feed_cat

# Create a function object that knows what to feed the cat with.
feed_cat_func = preparing_to_feed_cat(what_to_feed='cans of meat')

print(feed_cat_func(how_much_to_feed=3))

I'm feeding my cat with 3 cans of meat.


a = 42
def f(b):
    b = 11
f(a)
print(a)

42


a = [42]
def f(b):
    c = b
    c.append(11)
f(a)
print(a)

[42, 11]


def f(a=[0]):
    # Append a new element with the value as
    # the maximum of all list values plus 1.
    a.append(max(a) + 1)
    return a


print(f())

[0, 1]


print(f())

[0, 1, 2]


import numpy as np


a_list = [1, 2, 5, 3, 7, 10]  # A list.
arr = np.array(a_list)  # Instantiation of the numpy.ndarray class.
print(a_list*3)  # Repeat list 3 times.
print(arr*3)  # Multiply every array item with 3.

[1, 2, 5, 3, 7, 10, 1, 2, 5, 3, 7, 10, 1, 2, 5, 3, 7, 10]
[ 3  6 15  9 21 30]


arr = np.array(a_list, dtype=np.float64)
print(arr)
print(arr.dtype)

[ 1.  2.  5.  3.  7. 10.]
float64


print(arr)
print(f'arr.ndim={arr.ndim}')
print(f'arr.shape={arr.shape}')

[ 1.  2.  5.  3.  7. 10.]
arr.ndim=1
arr.shape=(6,)


arr = arr.reshape((3,2))
print(arr)
print(f'arr.ndim={arr.ndim}')
print(f'arr.shape={arr.shape}')

[[ 1.  2.]
 [ 5.  3.]
 [ 7. 10.]]
arr.ndim=2
arr.shape=(3, 2)


arr = np.arange(3)
print(f'arr = {arr}')
print(f'np.sin(arr) = {np.sin(arr)}')
print(f'np.exp(arr) = {np.exp(arr)}')
print(f'np.power(10, arr) = {np.power(10, arr)}')

arr = [0 1 2]
np.sin(arr) = [0.         0.84147098 0.90929743]
np.exp(arr) = [1.         2.71828183 7.3890561 ]
np.power(10, arr) = [  1  10 100]


arr = np. arange(10)
print(f'arr = {arr}')
print(f'np.mean(arr) = {np.mean(arr)}')
print(f'np.median(arr) = {np.median(arr)}')
print(f'np.std(arr) = {np.std(arr)}')

arr = [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
np.mean(arr) = 4.5
np.median(arr) = 4.5
np.std(arr) = 2.8722813232690143


unsorted_arr = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1, 6, 5])
sorted_arr = np.sort(unsorted_arr, kind='heapsort')
print(f'sorted_arr = {sorted_arr}')

sorted_arr = [1 2 3 4 5 6]


indices_ordering = np.argsort(unsorted_arr)
print(f'indices_ordering = {indices_ordering}')

indices_ordering = [3 2 0 1 5 4]


import numpy as np

a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])
b = np.array([7,8,9])
c = a + b
print('shape of a:', a.shape)
print('shape of b:', b.shape)
print('shape of c:', c.shape)
print(c)

shape of a: (2, 3)
shape of b: (3,)
shape of c: (2, 3)
[[ 8 10 12]
 [11 13 15]]


# Access by index (indices start with 0!):
print(a[0,2])
print(a[ [0,1,1], [0,1,2] ])

3
[1 5 6]


# Access by slice: start:end:step:
# Note: The start index is included, but the end index is excluded!
a = np.arange(0, 10)
print(a)
print(a[3:7])
print(a[3:7:2])
# Step can be negative to reverse the slice.
print(a[7:3:-2])

[0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
[3 4 5 6]
[3 5]
[7 5]


a = np.arange(0, 5)
mask = np.array([True, False, False, True, True])
print(a)
print(a[mask])

[0 1 2 3 4]
[0 3 4]


mask = (a == 0) | (a > 2)
print(mask)
print(a[mask])

[ True False False  True  True]
[0 3 4]


dt = [('a', np.int8), ('b', bool), ('c', np.float32)]
arr = np.array([(3, True, 3.3), (2, False, 2.2), (4, False, 4.4)], dtype=dt)


print('arr.size =', arr.size)
print('arr.ndim =', arr.ndim)
# Retrieve a table row.
print('arr[1] =', arr[1])

arr.size = 3
arr.ndim = 1
arr[1] = (2, False, 2.2)


# Masking on columns.
mask = arr['a'] >= 3
print('mask =', mask)
print('arr[mask] =', arr[mask])

mask = [ True False  True]
arr[mask] = [(3,  True, 3.3) (4, False, 4.4)]


# Setting column content.
arr['a'] = [42, 41, 40]
print(repr(arr['a']))

array([42, 41, 40], dtype=int8)


# Setting a table row. A tuple has to be used!
arr[1] = (7, True, 7.7)
print(arr)

[(42,  True, 3.3) ( 7,  True, 7.7) (40, False, 4.4)]


# Create a random number generator with a seed.
rng = np.random.default_rng(42)

# Generate next random number(s) in range [0,1).
print(rng.random(size=5))

# Generate a numpy array with uniform random numbers in the range [1, 6].
a, b = 1, 6
rng.uniform(a, b, size=(5,2))

[0.77395605 0.43887844 0.85859792 0.69736803 0.09417735]

array([[5.87811176, 4.80569851],
       [4.93032153, 1.64056816],
       [3.25192969, 2.85399012],
       [5.63382494, 4.2193256 ],
       [5.11380807, 3.21707099]])


import pandas as pd
df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3]})
print(df)

   A
0  1
1  2
2  3


arr = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])
print(arr)

0    1
1    2
2    3
dtype: int64


# Show data types:
df.dtypes

A    int64
dtype: object


# describe() shows a quick statistic summary of your data:
df.describe()


# Slicing rows.
df[0:2]


# Call this magic function in the first line of your Jupyter notebook:
#%matplotlib notebook
# If that doesn't work, use
#%matplotlib widget


# Example: the final plot looks like this:
import matplotlib
fig = matplotlib.pyplot.figure(figsize=(6, 3))


# Split the figure into an array of fields: ncols x nrows.
grid = matplotlib.pyplot.GridSpec(ncols=1, nrows=1)


# Add a subplot by specifying column and row.
# You can also use slicing here for combining fields.
ax = fig.add_subplot(grid[0, 0])


# Input data
xval = np.linspace(0., 2.*np.pi, 101)
yval = np.sin(xval)


# Plot the input data:
# Combine the data points with a solid line.
ax.plot(xval, yval, "-", label="This is the sine function.")

[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D at 0x7f506aa4f7f0>]


# Axes formatting
ax.set_xlim(xval[0], xval[-1])
ax.set_ylim(-1., 1.)

(-1.0, 1.0)


# Set the major ticks location and format of the x-axis.
ax.xaxis.set_major_locator(matplotlib.ticker.FixedLocator([
    0, np.pi/2, np.pi, 3/2*np.pi, 2*np.pi]))
ax.xaxis.set_major_formatter(matplotlib.ticker.FixedFormatter([
    "$0$", r"$\frac{\pi}{2}$", r"$\pi$", r"$\frac{3\pi}{2}$",
    r"$2\pi$"]))


# For linear ticks, Matplotlib is pretty good in figuring out the
# location of minor ticks.
ax.yaxis.set_major_locator(
    matplotlib.ticker.LinearLocator(numticks=5))
ax.yaxis.set_minor_locator(
    matplotlib.ticker.AutoMinorLocator())


# Labels
ax.set_xlabel(r"$\alpha$")
ax.set_ylabel(r"$\sin(\alpha)$")

Text(26.097222222222214, 0.5, '$\\sin(\\alpha)$')


# Legend
ax.legend(loc="upper right")

<matplotlib.legend.Legend at 0x7f506aa18640>


# Shrink the axes in order to fit in the labels.
grid.tight_layout(fig)
plt.show()


# Save the figure.
fig.savefig("example.pdf")


fig = plt.figure(figsize=(6, 3))
ax = fig.add_subplot(projection="mollweide")
plt.title("Mollweide Projection")
plt.grid(True)
plt.show()


# Draw a line.
fig = plt.figure(figsize=(6, 3))
ax = fig.add_subplot(projection="mollweide")
plt.title("Mollweide Projection")
plt.grid(True)
line = ax.plot(np.deg2rad([-90, 120]), np.deg2rad([-45, 60]))
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()


# Create the data as a 2D numpy ndarray.
data = np.zeros((128, 64), dtype=np.float64)
data[54:74, 22:42] = np.reshape(np.random.normal(size=20*20), (20,20))
# Create mesh grid for the coordinates of the data bins.
lon = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, data.shape[0])
lat = np.linspace(-np.pi/2, np.pi/2, data.shape[1])
(Lon, Lat) = np.meshgrid(lon, lat)


fig = plt.figure(figsize=(6,3))
ax = fig.add_subplot(projection="mollweide")
im = ax.pcolormesh(Lon, Lat, data.T, cmap=plt.cm.seismic,
                   vmin=-4, vmax=4)
plt.colorbar(im, label='random normal values')
plt.grid(True)


# Import matplotlib and configure it so show animations in jupyter.
from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
from matplotlib import animation

# To visualize animations correctly, we use the jshtml backend.
from matplotlib import rc
rc('animation', html='jshtml')


# Define functions to plot a point and to prepare the animation.
def draw_point():
    # Plot a blue point at (0,0). The plt.plot function returns
    # a list of Line2D objects.
    point = plt.plot(0, 0, marker='o', color='blue')[0]
    return point

def prepare_animation():
    point = draw_point()

    def animate(frame_number):
        # In each frame we update the x-coordinate of the
        # Line2D object.
        point.set_xdata([frame_number])
        # The animate function needs to return a list of
        # artists that will be redrawn.
        return [point]

    return animate


(fig, ax) = plt.subplots()
plt.title('Simple Animation')
plt.xlim(-1, 300)

# Define how long in seconds the animation should run.
length = 10
# Define how many frames per second we want to animate.
fps = 25
# Calculate the delay between frames in milliseconds.
# Keep in mind that we have a frame at the start AND
# at the end of the animation.
delay = int(1000 / (fps-1))

# Prepare the animation by plotting the point.
animation_func = prepare_animation()

# Animate the animation function.
ani = animation.FuncAnimation(
    fig,
    animation_func,
    frames=int(fps * length), # Number of frames to animate.
    interval=delay, # Delay between frames in milliseconds.
    repeat=False,
    blit=True # This will use less ressources.
)

ani


# To convert the animation into a HTML5 video one can do:
from IPython.display import HTML
HTML(ani.to_html5_video())


from astropy import units as u
from astropy.time import Time
from astropy.coordinates import SkyCoord, AltAz, EarthLocation


# Define location in sky.
TXS = SkyCoord(ra=77.358*u.degree, dec=5.693*u.degree, frame='icrs')


# Transformation into galactic coordinates.
print(TXS.galactic)

<SkyCoord (Galactic): (l, b) in deg
    (195.40542828, -19.63626563)>


# Transform to local horizontal system at South Pole.
southpole = EarthLocation.from_geodetic(
    lon=0*u.degree, lat=-90*u.degree)
TXS_local = TXS.transform_to(AltAz(
    obstime=Time(56000, format='mjd'),
    location=southpole))
print(TXS_local)

<SkyCoord (AltAz: obstime=56000.0, location=(3.91862092e-10, 0., -6356752.31424518) m, pressure=0.0 hPa, temperature=0.0 deg_C, relative_humidity=0.0, obswl=1.0 micron): (az, alt) in deg
    (265.51023729, -5.70561117)>


# Transform to local horizontal system at Garching (CIP-Pool1) now.
import time
garching = EarthLocation.from_geodetic(
    lat=48.26695746469105*u.degree, lon=11.67676875270207*u.degree)
TXS_local = TXS.transform_to(AltAz(
    obstime=Time(time.time(), format='unix'),
    location=garching))
print(TXS_local)

<SkyCoord (AltAz: obstime=1683273201.4854765, location=(4165583.55669134, 860889.61251078, 4736687.19293947) m, pressure=0.0 hPa, temperature=0.0 deg_C, relative_humidity=0.0, obswl=1.0 micron): (az, alt) in deg
    (90.11878672, 7.7833946)>


# A not very useful class.
class MyClass(object):
    pass


# MyClass is a class object!
# Let's look at its attributes:
dir(MyClass)

['__class__',
 '__delattr__',
 '__dict__',
 '__dir__',
 '__doc__',
 '__eq__',
 '__format__',
 '__ge__',
 '__getattribute__',
 '__gt__',
 '__hash__',
 '__init__',
 '__init_subclass__',
 '__le__',
 '__lt__',
 '__module__',
 '__ne__',
 '__new__',
 '__reduce__',
 '__reduce_ex__',
 '__repr__',
 '__setattr__',
 '__sizeof__',
 '__str__',
 '__subclasshook__',
 '__weakref__']


# A simple class with a constructor, two attributes, and a
# special method.
class Direction(object):
    r"""Directional vector in spherical coordinates.

    Attributes
    ----------
    azimuth : float
        Azimuth angle in rad
    zenith : float
        Zenith angle in rad
    """
    def __init__(self, azimuth, zenith):
        """This is the constructor method.
        """
        self.azimuth = azimuth
        self.zenith = zenith

    def __str__(self):
        """This is a special class method to generate
        output for `str(obj)`.
        """
        return f"({self.azimuth}, {self.zenith})"


d = Direction(np.pi/3., np.pi/2.)
print("Direction:", d)

Direction: (1.0471975511965976, 1.5707963267948966)


class A(object):
    r"""Class `A` with the property `a`,
    which must be a positive number.
    """
    def __init__(self):
        self._a = 0

    @property
    def a(self):
        r"""int: A positive number
        """
        return self._a

    @a.setter
    def a(self, val):
        if val >= 0:
            self._a = val
        else:
            raise ValueError(
                "Expect a positive number.")


a = A()
a.a = 42
print(a.a)

42


a.a = -1

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError                                Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-78-9af0c80ce669> in <module>
----> 1 a.a = -1

<ipython-input-76-7eed1312c01a> in a(self, val)
     17             self._a = val
     18         else:
---> 19             raise ValueError(
     20                 "Expect a positive number.")

ValueError: Expect a positive number.


class A(object):
    r"""A class with an instance method.
    """
    def __init__(self, a):
        self.a = a

a = A(42)
print(a.a)

42


class A(object):
    r"""A class with class method.

    """
    def __init__(self, a, b):
        self.a = a
        self.b = b

    def __str__(self):
        return "a = {o.a}, b = {o.b}".format(o=self)

    @classmethod
    def from_tuple(cls, t):
        return cls(t[0], t[1])


a = A.from_tuple((1., 2.))
print(a)

a = 1.0, b = 2.0


class Angle(object):
    r"""A class with a static method

    """
    def __init__(self, value=0.):
        self.value = value

    @staticmethod
    def deg2rad(angle):
        return angle * np.pi / 180.


print("30deg = {:.2f}rad".format(Angle.deg2rad(30.)))

30deg = 0.52rad


a = Angle()
print("30deg = {:.2f}rad".format(a.deg2rad(30.)))

30deg = 0.52rad


# Example for addition operator:
class Text(object):
    def __init__(self, value):
        self.value = value
    def __add__(self, rhs):
        return Text(self.value + str(rhs))
    def __str__(self):
        return self.value

t1 = Text('Hello')
t2 = Text(' ')
t3 = Text('World')

print(t1 + t2 + t3)
print(t1 + ' ' + t3)
print('Hello' + t2 + t3)

Hello World
Hello World

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-85-4a6eeadbd374> in <module>
     14 print(t1 + t2 + t3)
     15 print(t1 + ' ' + t3)
---> 16 print('Hello' + t2 + t3)

TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "Text") to str


# Example for addition operator with reflected addition operator:
class Text(object):
    def __init__(self, value):
        self.value = value
    def __add__(self, rhs):
        return Text(self.value + str(rhs))
    def __radd__(self, lhs):
        return Text(str(lhs) + self.value)
    def __str__(self):
        return self.value

t2 = Text(' ')
t3 = Text('World')

print('Hello' + t2 + t3)

Hello World


angle = Angle(42)
print(hasattr(angle, 'deg2rad'))

True


class Animal(object):
    """This is the base class.
    """
    def __init__(self, species, age):
        self.species = species
        self.age = age

    # Instance method.
    def description(self):
        print(f'{self.species} is {self.age} years old')

    @property
    def age(self):
        return self._age
    @age.setter
    def age(self, age):
        if age >= 0:
            self._age = age
        else:
            raise ValueError(
                f'Provided {age} age has to be a positive number.')


class Dog(Animal):
    """The Dog class is derived from the base class `Animal`.
    """
    def __init__(self, age):
        # Call the constructor of the parent class.
        # This first creates an animal object, which is then extended.
        super().__init__('dog', age)

class Cat(Animal):
    def __init__(self, age):
        super().__init__('cat', age)

    def description(self):
        """This methods overwrites the parent's description method.
        """
        print(f'I am a {self.species}')


dog = Dog(5)
dog.description()

dog is 5 years old


cat = Cat(6)
cat.description()

I am a cat


print(type(cat))
print(type(cat.age))
print(type(cat.description))

<class '__main__.Cat'>
<class 'int'>
<class 'method'>


print(isinstance(cat, Cat))
print(isinstance(cat, Dog))
print(isinstance(cat, Animal))

True
False
True


print(issubclass(Cat, Animal))
print(issubclass(Cat, Cat))
print(issubclass(Cat, Dog))

True
True
False


class IsPuppy(object):
    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        # We need to call the parent's constructor
        # to call the constructor of ALL base classes of a derived class.
        super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)

    def description(self):
        print(f'I am a puppy.')

class Puppy(Dog, IsPuppy):
    def __init__(self, age):
        super().__init__(age)


puppy_dog = Puppy(1)
puppy_dog.description()

dog is 1 years old


print(Puppy.mro())

[<class '__main__.Puppy'>, <class '__main__.Dog'>, <class '__main__.Animal'>, <class '__main__.IsPuppy'>, <class 'object'>]


class Puppy(IsPuppy, Dog):
    def __init__(self, age):
        super().__init__(age)


print(Puppy.mro())

puppy_dog = Puppy(1)
puppy_dog.description()

[<class '__main__.Puppy'>, <class '__main__.IsPuppy'>, <class '__main__.Dog'>, <class '__main__.Animal'>, <class 'object'>]
I am a puppy.


import abc

class AnimalBase(object, metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
    def __init__(self, species, age):
        self.species = species
        self.age = age

    # Abstract instance method.
    @abc.abstractmethod
    def description(self):
        # We use `pass` as a placeholder for the
        # implementation by the derived class.
        pass

    # Define age property with abstract setter method.
    @property
    def age(self):
        return self._age
    @age.setter
    @abc.abstractmethod
    def age(self, age):
        pass


class Dog(AnimalBase):
    def __init__(self, age):
        super().__init__('dog', age)


dog = Dog(5)
dog.description()

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-102-8c735f9acb69> in <module>
----> 1 dog = Dog(5)
      2 dog.description()

TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Dog with abstract methods age, description


class Dog(AnimalBase):
    def __init__(self, age):
      super().__init__('dog', age)

    # Implement the description instance method.
    def description(self):
        print('I am the implementation of the description instance method.')
        print(f'The {self.species} is of age {self.age}.')

    # Implement the setter method of the age property.
    @AnimalBase.age.setter
    def age(self, age):
        if age < 0:
            print(f'Provided {age} age has to be positive number.')
            self._age = None
        else:
            self._age = age


dog = Dog(-5)
dog.description()

Provided -5 age has to be positive number.
I am the implementation of the description instance method.
The dog is of age None.


dog = Dog(2)
dog.description()

I am the implementation of the description instance method.
The dog is of age 2.


# Example of a container with the iterator protocol supported.
class MyBox(object):
    def __init__(self, items):
        self.items = items
    def __iter__(self):
        return MyBoxIterator(self)

# We define an iterator class that knows how to iterate through
# the items of the box.
class MyBoxIterator(object):
    def __init__(self, box):
        self.box = box
        # The index attribute points to the next item in the box.
        self.index = 0
    def __iter__(self):
        return self
    def __next__(self):
        # Check if we reached the end of the item sequence.
        if self.index == len(self.box.items):
            raise StopIteration()
        self.index += 1
        return self.box.items[self.index-1]


box = MyBox([8, 'a', 42, 'hello'])
items = [item for item in box]
print(items)

[8, 'a', 42, 'hello']


class MySimpleBox(object):
    def __init__(self, items):
        self.items = items
    def __iter__(self):
        return iter(self.items)


box = MySimpleBox([8, 'a', 42, 'hello'])
for item in box:
    print(item)

8
a
42
hello


with open('myfile.txt', 'w') as f:
    f.write('Hello World!')


class MyFile(object):
    def __init__(self, filename, mode):
        self.filename = filename
        self.mode = mode

    def __enter__(self):
        print(f'Opening file {self.filename} in mode {self.mode}')
        self.f = open(self.filename, self.mode)
        return self.f

    def __exit__(self, type, value, traceback):
        print(f'Closing file {self.filename}')
        self.f.close()

myfile = MyFile('myfile.txt', 'r')

with myfile as f:
    print(f.readlines())

Opening file myfile.txt in mode r
['Hello World!']
Closing file myfile.txt


def custom_range_generator(n):
    i = 0
    while i < n:
        yield i
        i += 1


range_generator = custom_range_generator(5)
print("next():", next(range_generator))
print("type:", type(range_generator))
print("list remaining numbers:", list(range_generator))

next(): 0
type: <class 'generator'>
list remaining numbers: [1, 2, 3, 4]


# We have to create the generator again as we exhausted its items by calling
# `list` function earlier.
range_generator = custom_range_generator(5)
# Example in for loops
for i in range_generator:
    print(i)

git clone https://github.com/icecube/skyllh.git skyllh

git branch -a

git clone https://github.com/icecube/skyllh.git skyllh.my_new_feature
cd skyllh.my_new_feature/
git checkout -b my_new_feature

git status

git checkout master


%load_ext scalene

Scalene extension successfully loaded. Note: Scalene currently only
supports CPU+GPU profiling inside Jupyter notebooks. For full Scalene
profiling, use the command line version.


%%scalene
# Profile more than one line of code in a cell
x = 0
for i in range(1000):
    for j in range(1000):
        x += 1


import unittest

class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase):

    def test_upper(self):
        self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO')

    def test_isupper(self):
        self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper())
        self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper())

    def test_split(self):
        s = 'hello world'
        self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world'])
        # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string
        with self.assertRaises(TypeError):
            s.split(2)

if __name__ == '__main__':
    unittest.main()

git clone https://github.com/martwo/teaching.git

	A
count	3.0
mean	2.0
std	1.0
min	1.0
25%	1.5
50%	2.0
75%	2.5
max	3.0

Advanced Python Programming¶

Learning objectives of this course¶

Technical Prerequisites Of This Course¶

Why do we need to be able to develop software in physics?¶

Overview¶

Intro and course setup¶

The basics of Python¶

Advanced basics of Python¶

Advanced packages¶

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)¶

Working with version control systems (git)¶

Jupyter Notebook and virtual Python environments on your own computer¶

Jupyter Notebook on Google Colab¶

The basics of Python¶

The Zen of Python (PEP 20)¶

Data types¶

Python as a calculator¶

String formatting¶

Loops and Conditions¶

List comprehension¶

Working with files¶

Random numbers¶

Functions¶

Lambda functions¶

Exceptions¶

Decorators¶

Nested functions¶

PEP8 Coding style¶

Common pitfalls¶

NumPy¶

Importing numpy¶

Creating numpy arrays¶

Math functions¶

Statistical functions¶

Sorting functions¶

Broadcasting of numpy arrays¶

Indexing / Slicing of numpy arrays¶

Masking of numpy arrays¶

Numpy structured arrays¶

Random numbers with numpy¶

Pandas¶

Scipy¶

Numerical integration¶

Minimization / curve fitting¶

Interpolation¶

Statistical functions¶

Matplotlib¶

Skymaps with Matplotlib¶

Plotting a map from array data¶

Creating a matplotlib animation¶

Celestial Coordinate transformations¶

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)¶

Classes¶

Properties¶

Instance methods¶

The @classmethod decorator¶

The @staticmethod decorator¶

Operator methods¶

Check for attributes¶

Propper naming scheme¶

Inheritance¶

isinstance and issubclass¶

Multiple inheritance¶

Abstract Base Classes¶

Iterator protocol¶

Context Manager¶

Generators¶

Recap:¶

Generator function¶

Working with version control systems (git)¶

What is a version control system?¶

What is git?¶

Cloning a repository¶

Working with branches¶

List available branches¶

Creating a new branch¶

Commiting code changes¶

Merging two branches¶

Resolving merge conflicts¶

Pull requests on github.com¶

What is `git`?¶